Message for Muslims

Hostilities between Medina and Mecca: Expeditions including some conducted by Muhammad himself begin to be  made against the mercantile caravans of Mecca. The raid on Nakhla carried out inappropriately in the ‘sacred months’ has divine sanction as Muhammad receives a revelation. These events engender greater hostilities between Medina and Mecca and lead to the important battles of Badr and Uhud as war becomes an established ordinance of Islam.

 

Repose at Medina for the first six months.

The first six months of Muhammad’s residence at Medina were undisturbed either by alarms from without or by hostile councils at home. No vindictive measures were planned by the citizens of Mecca. He who had for more than ten years kept the city in continual excitement, broken up old parties, and introduced a new faction of his own, was now gone and his absence afforded immediate relief. The society long troubled, now again returned to flow peacefully for a while. The people of Medina were pledged only to defend the Prophet from attack, not to join him in aggressive steps against the Qurraish. His followers from Mecca were too few to measure arms alone with the Qurraish. They were also, like himself were occupied by the duty of providing dwelling-places for their families.

 

The caravan trade of Mecca with Syria.

However, in the caravan traffic with the north (the beaten path of which passed between Medina and the sea-coast) there was a vulnerable temptation. The caravan-trade in which Mecca was involved was large and profitable and almost every citizen of Mecca, man and woman, owned a share however small; and when a caravan was threatened the whole city was thrown into alarm. The caravans, indeed, had always been subject to a certain risk from the attack of Arab bandits. Halting by day and travelling by night, the long strings of camels, with but a slender escort, were at once thrown into confusion, especially in ravines or narrow passes, by the onset of a few determined brigands. The danger from such desultory attack was ordinarily met by extreme caution on the part of the leader, whose scouts gave timely notice of any risk. The Qurraish were not slow to perceive that their position must be very different now with an enemy situated as Muhammad at Medina and they began to watch with anxiety as they despatched their caravans to Syria.

 

Expeditions against Qurraishite caravans.

The earliest indications of hostility were of a petty and marauding character. Seven months after his arrival Muhammad despatched his uncle Hamza, at the head of thirty Refugees, to surprise a Meccan caravan, guarded by some 300 Qurraish, returning from Syria under the guidance of Abu Jahl. About a month later a body, double the strength of the first, was sent by Muhammad under command of his cousin Ubeida in pursuit of another caravan protected by Abu Sofian with an escort of 200 men. The Qurraish were surprised while their camels were grazing by a fountain in the valley of Rabigh; but the Muslims found the caravan too strong for them and, beyond the discharge of arrows from a distance, no hostilities were attempted.  Ubeida is distinguished in tradition as he who upon this occasion ‘shot the first arrow for Islam,’

After the lapse of another month, a third expedition started, under the youthful Sa’d with twenty followers, in the same direction. He was desired to proceed as far as a certain valley on the road to Mecca, and to lie in wait for a caravan expected to pass that way. Like most of the subsequent marauding parties intended to effect a surprise, they marched by night and lay in concealment during the day. Not- withstanding this precaution when they reached their destination on the fifth morning, they found that the caravan had passed a day before, and they returned empty-handed to Medina. These excursions occurred in the winter and spring of the year A. D. 623. On each occasion, Muhammad mounted a white banner on a staff or lance, and presented it to the leader on his departure. In these and all other expeditions of any importance the names of the leaders, and also of those who carried the standard, are carefully recorded by tradition. These small night attacks are called Sariya; the larger expeditions, those of any importance especially in which Muhammad himself was leader, Ghazia.

 

Three expeditions conducted by Muhammad himself.

In the summer and autumn of the same year, Muhammad led in person three somewhat larger, though equally unsuccessful parties. The expeditions are known as firstly Abwa, secondly Bowat and thirdly Oshira

 

The Nakhla Expedition.

M uhammad later sent forth Abdallah ibn Jahsh, with seven other Refugees, on an expedition which was attended with more serious results than any of the preceding. As he bade farewell to Abdallah, the Prophet placed in his hands a closed packet of instructions, and charged him not to open it till he entered a certain valley two days march on the road to Mecca. On reaching the appointed spot, Abdallah broke open the letter, and read it aloud to his comrades as follows: Go forward to Nakhla, in the name of the Lord, and with his blessing ! Yet force not any of thy followers against his inclination. Proceed with those that accompany thee willingly. And when thou hast arrived at the valley of Nakhla, there lie in wait for the caravans of the Qurraish.

Nakhla is a valley to the east of Mecca, about half-way to Tayif ; and the southern trade all passed that way. Watched and pursued in their commerce with Syria, the traffic towards the south would be more securely and more busily prosecuted by the merchants of Mecca; for the route lay far removed from the vicinity of their enemy. Muhammad had, no doubt, intimation that some rich venture, lightly guarded, was shortly expected at Mecca by this route; and by his sealed instructions he effectually provided against intelligence and alarm being conveyed to the Qurraish.

Having read the order, Abdallah told his comrades that anyone who wished was at liberty to go back: ‘ As for my self, ’ he said, ‘I will go forward and fulfil the command of the Prophet.’ All joined in the same determination, and proceeded onwards. Two of them fell behind in search of their camel which had strayed, and lost their party. The remaining six, having reached Nakhla, waited there. In a short time a caravan laden with wine, raisins, and leather came up. It was guarded by four of the Qurraish, who, seeing the strangers, were alarmed and halted. To disarm their apprehensions, one of Abdullah’s party shaved his head, in token that they were returning from the Lesser pilgrimage; for this was one of the months in which that ceremony was ordinarily performed. The men of the caravan seeing his shaven head were at once reassured, and turning the camels adrift to pasture began to cook their food.

Meanwhile, Abdallah and his comrades debated the propriety of an attack during the sacred month of Rajab, and thus they spoke one to another: ‘If we should defer the attack this night, they will surely move off, and, entering the holy territory, thus escape us and if we should fight against them now, it is unlawful, for we shall be transgressing the sacred month.’ They were thus fixed on the horns of a dilemma. At last they overcame their scruples. Wackid, one of their number, advanced covertly; and discharging an arrow killed a man of the convoy, Amr ibn al Hadhrami, on the spot. All then rushed upon the caravan, and securing two of the Qurraish, Othman and Al Hakam, carried them off prisoners, with the spoil, to Medina. Nowfal, the brother of Othman, leaped on his horse and escaped to Mecca; but too late to give the alarm, for a pursuit.

 

Muhammad’s revelation approving the Nakhla raid

On Abdallah reaching Medina, he acquainted Muhammad with what had passed. The Prophet, who had probably not expected the party to reach Nakhla or the attack to be made till after the close of Rajab, appeared displeased, and said: ‘I never commanded thee to fight in the sacred month.’ So he put the booty aside, pending further orders, and kept the prisoners in bonds. Abdallah and his comrades were ashamed and grieved; the people also reproached them for what they had done. But Muhammad was unwilling to discourage his followers; and soon after, a revelation was given, justifying hostilities even during the sacred months as a lesser evil than idolatry and opposition to Islam. We can read it in Sura 2 Al-Baqarrah:

> “They will ask thee concerning the sacred months, whether they may war therein. Say : Warring therein is grievous ; but to obstruct the way of God, and to deny Him, and hinder men from the Holy temple, and expel His people from thence, is more grievous with God. Tempting (to idolatry) is more grievous than killing.”

Having promulgated this verse, Muhammad gave over the booty to the captors, who (anticipating the subsequent practice) presented a fifth of it to Muhammad, and divided the remainder among themselves. The prisoners were later ransomed after their relatives sent a deputation from Mecca.

Arabian writers rightly attach much importance to this expedition. ‘This was,’ says Ibn Hisham, ‘the first booty that the Muslims obtained; the first captives they seized; the first life they took.’ Abdallah is said to have been called in this expedition Amir al Muminin, an appellation- ‘Commander of the Faithful’ assumed in after days by the Caliphs.

 

Growing hostility of Muhammad and his followers towards the Qurraish.

It was now a year and a half since Muhammad and his followers had taken refuge in Medina. Their attitude towards Mecca was becoming daily more hostile. Latterly, no opportunity had been lost of threatening the numerous caravans which passed through the Hejaz. On the regular and uninterrupted march of these to Syria depended the prosperity of Mecca. This last attack had shown that the combat on which they were entering, would respect neither life nor the inviolability of the sacred months. Blood had been shed foully and sacrilegiously, and was yet un-avenged. Still there came no hostile response from Mecca. Though followers of the Prophet, were known to be in the city, no cruelties were perpetrated on them, nor any reprisals attempted by the Qurraish. But the breach was widening, and the enmity becoming deeper seated; blood could be washed out by blood alone.

 

Divine command to fight against the Qurraish.

At Medina, on the other hand, the prospect of a mortal conflict with their enemies was steadily contemplated, and openly spoken of by Muhammad and his adherents. At what period the divine command to fight against the unbelievers of Mecca was promulgated, is uncertain. Repeated attacks on the caravans of the Qurraish had been gradually paving the way for it; and when given, it was no more than the embodiment of a resolution for revenge for the plunder of the rich merchandise which passed to and fro in tempting proximity to their city. The following are the earliest passages on the subject:

> “Bear good tidings unto the Righteous. Truly the Lord will keep back the enemy from those who believe, for God loveth not the perfidious unbeliever. Permission is granted unto those who take up arms for that they have been injuriously entreated; and verily the Lord is mighty for the assistance of those who have been driven from their homes without just cause, for no other than because they said. God is our Lord. (Al-Hajj 22:39,40)

So, war, upon grounds professedly religious, was established as an ordinance of Islam. Hostilities, indeed, were justified by the ‘expulsion’ of the believers from Mecca. But the main and later undisguised issue which Muhammad in this warfare set before him was the victory of Islam. They were to fight ‘ until the religion became the Lord’s alone.’

 

The Battle of Badr

With the battle of Badr opens a new era in Islam. The biographers of Muhammad have shown their appreciation of the influence which it exercised on his future fortunes. In the mass of detail the minutest circumstances, and most trifling details, even to the name of each person engaged in it, have been carefully treasured up. Passing on beyond the details of the war strategy on both sides, the battle concluded with forty-nine of the Qurraish killed, and about the same number taken prisoner. Many of the principal men of the Qurraish, and some of Muhammad’s bitterest opponents were slain. Chief amongst these was Abu Jahl.  Muhammad lost only fourteen, of whom eight were citizens of Medina.

 

Contention about the division of the booty is decided by revelation.

When the enemy had disappeared, the army of Medina was for some time engaged in gathering the spoil. The booty consisted of one hundred and fifteen camels, fourteen horses, carpets and other articles of fine leather, vestments and armour. A diversity of opinion arose about the distribution. The contention was so sharp that Muhammad interposed with a message from Heaven, and assumed possession of the whole booty. It was God who had given the victory, and to God the spoil belonged:

> ‘They wiIl ask thee concerning the prey. Say, the prey is God’s and his Prophet’s. Wherefore, fear God, and dispose of the matter rightly among yourselves; and be obedient unto God and his Prophet, if ye be true believers; ‘ (Al-Anfal 8:1)

In accordance with the divine command, the booty was gathered together on the field, and placed under a special officer, a citizen of Medina. The next day it was divided near Safra, in equal allotments, among the whole army, after the Prophet’s fifth had been set apart.

 

The prisoners treated kindly.

In the evening, the remaining prisoners were brought in. In pursuance of Muhammad’s commands, the citizens of Medina, and such of the refugees as already had houses of their own, received the prisoners, and treated them with much consideration. ‘Blessings be on the men of Medina’ said one of these prisoners in later days: ‘they made us ride, while they themselves walked: they gave us wheaten bread to eat when there was little of it, contenting them­selves with dates.’  It is not surprising that when, some time afterwards, their friends came to ransom them; several of the prisoners who had been thus received declared themselves adherents of Islam; and to such the Prophet granted liberty without ransom. It was a long time before the Qurraish could re­concile themselves to the humiliation of visiting Medina to arrange for the liberation of their relatives. Their kindly treatment, was thus prolonged, and left a favourable impression on the minds even of those who did not at once go over to Islam.

 

The importance of the Battle of Badr.

The battle of Badr was indeed a critical point in the career of Muhammad. However skilful in turning every incident, whether favourable or not, into a proof of the interposition for the furtherance of Islam, the Prophet would have found it difficult on the present occasion to maintain his position at Medina in the face of a reverse. The victory now supplied him with new and cogent arguments.  He did not hesitate to ascribe his success to the miraculous assistance of God and this was the easier in consequence of the superior numbers of the Qurraish:

>”When ye sought assistance from your Lord;  and He answered, Verily, I will assist you with a thousand angels, following one upon another :this the Lord did as good tidings for you, and that your  hearts might be thereby reassured. As for victory, it is from none other than God; for God is glorious and wise.”  (Al-Anfal 8:9)

> “Verily there hath been given unto you a Sign in the two armies which fought. One army fought in the way of God. The other was unbelieving, and saw their enemy double of them­selves by the sight of the eye, and God strengtheneth with His aid whom He pleaseth. Verily, therein, is a lesson unto the discerning people.” (Al-Imran 3:13)

> “And ye slew them not, but God slew them. And thou (0 Prophet) didst not cast (the gravel); but God cast it; that He might prove the believers by a gracious probation from Himself. Verily, God heareth and knoweth, It was even so. And God weakened the devices of the infidels.  If ye desire a decision, truly the decision (or Victory) hath already come unto you. If ye hold back, it will be better for you; but if ye return, We also shall return. And your troops will not avail anything, even though they be many in number, for surely God is with the believers.”  (Al-Anfal 8:17-19)

 

Muhammad now stands or falls by success on the battle-field.

The cause of Muhammad, it was distinctly admitted, must stand or fall by the result of the armed struggle with his native city on which he had now entered: difficult  and dangerous ground, no doubt, for a fallible mortal to stand upon; but the die was cast, and the battle must be fought out to the death. The scabbard having been cast away, little additional risk was incurred by the founder of Islam when he made success in arms the criterion of his prophetical claim. However strong his position otherwise, it could not possibly be maintained in the face of a final and conclusive defeat; however otherwise weak, a succession of victories would establish it triumphantly.

 

The Qurraish resolve to avenge the defeat at Badr

At Mecca itself, the news of the defeat was received with consternation. Shame and burning desire for revenge stifled the expression of grief.  In A.D. 625 twelve months had lapsed since the battle of Badr and the cry for revenge was now put into execution. Rumours of preparation by the Qurraish for a grand attack upon Medina had for some time been reaching Muhammad: but the first authentic notice of the impending invasion was a sealed letter placed in his hands, while he was at the Mosque in Quba, by a messenger from Mecca. The letter contained the startling intelligence that the Qurraish, three thousand strong, were on the point of marching. Muhammad enjoined secrecy; but the tidings could not be suppressed, the coming attack was soon noised abroad, and caused great excitement, especially among the Jews and those who sympathised with them.

 

The Qurraish march from Mecca

The movement at Mecca did, indeed, justify alarm for all the chiefs of the Qurraish had joined the force. After a sharp discussion women were allowed to accompany them; and fifteen including the two wives of Abu Sofian, availed themselves of the permission. These kindled the fury of the army by chanting verses to the stirring cadence of the timbrel, and invoking vengeance on the Muslims for friends and kinsmen slain at Bedr. Foremost was Hind the wife of Abu Sofian, who, thirsting for the blood of Hamza, had engaged an Ethiopian, with his deadly javelin, to make sure of her victim.

The army encamped in an extensive and fertile plain to the west of the hill of Uhud. The luxuriant corn was cut down as forage for the horses; and the camels, set loose to graze, trampled the fields in all directions. Between this plain and Medina were several rocky ridges, which rendered it secure from any direct attack from the north but the Qurraish feared that the road toward the east and south could afford a means of attack from their enemy. They hoped therefore to draw them to the outskirts and overpower them, upon equal ground, by their superior numbers.

 

The Battle of Uhud (A.H. 3-A. D 624)

The advancing Muslim army occupied the rising ground with their rear protected by the heights of Uhud, excepting on the left, where the rocks receded and afforded the enemy an opening, the more dangerous because it was suited to the movements of the Qurraish horse. Muhammad, therefore, posted on an adjoining eminence the cream of his archery, and gave their leader an absolute injunction to hold fast, and steadily check the attempts which he expected the Qurraish would here make to turn his flank. Then he drew out his line, facing towards Medina. He forbade his followers to engage the enemy till he gave command; for He knew the strength of his position would be sacrificed by a premature advance. Having thus disposed his force, Muhammad put on a second coat of mail, and calmly awaited the enemy’s approach.

 

The Qurraish are pressed and waver

A general engagement ensued in which the Muslim advance was pressed too hotly and their own line became irregular and confused; and a portion, piercing the ranks of the enemy, fell to plundering his camp and baggage. They could not resist the temptation; casting to the winds the injunction of the Prophet, they hurried to the spoil. The ready eye of Khalid, the leader of the Qurraish, saw the opportunity and he hastened to retrieve the day. He wheeled round the enemy’s left wing now uncovered, swept off the few remaining archers from the rising ground, and appearing suddenly in the rear of the Muslims, charged down into their ranks. The surprise was fatal the discomfiture complete. Musab and Hamza were slain.

 

Muhammad wounded

It was a moment of peril for Muhammad. At the first success he had kept behind, watching the advance of his troops; and remaining in that position, he narrowly escaped the sweeping charge of Khalid’s cavalry. (Tradition tells that he was by an angel. It is added the angels though present did not fight that day; but had the believers stood fast they would have fought). Some marvellous but improbable stories are told of his prowess, as well as of his signal escapes. With the followers who surrounded him, he joined in discharging arrows till his bow was broken; and then he took to casting stones. At one period, he is said to have inflicted a deadly wound on one of the Qurraish, who pressed madly forward to cut him down. When the Muslim ranks were broken and forced back, he cried out aloud : Whither away? Come back! I am the Apostle of God! Return! But the call was unheeded; The retreat went on unchecked. The enemy soon bore down in force upon the Prophet himself; and if a party of devoted followers had not rallied round his person his escape would have been impossible.

Stones and arrows flew thick around. A stone wounded the Prophet’s under lip and broke one of his front teeth. Another severe blow upon the face drove the rings of the helmet deep into his cheek, and made a gash in his forehead. The sword of Ibn Camia was barely warded off from the head of Muhammad by the hand of Talha son of Obeidallah, whose fingers were thereby disabled. Muhammad fell to the ground, and Ibn Camia returned to his comrades exclaiming that he had killed him. The cry was taken up all around and resounded from the rocks of Uhud. It spread consternation among the Prophet’s followers. But Muhammad was only stunned and took refuge in the cliffs of Uhud close behind. The first care of his followers was to remove the helmet from his head. Two of its rings were so imbedded in his cheek, that Abu Obeida, who extracted them with his mouth, lost two teeth in the operation. The blood flowed copiously from the Prophet’s wounds. Ali ran to a hollow in the rock, and brought, some water in his shield. Muhammad could not drink it but only rinsed his mouth. As the blood was being washed off his face, he exclaimed: How shall the people prosper that have treated thus their Prophet who calleth them unto their Lord.’ Let the wrath of God burn against the men that have besprinkled the face of His Apostle with his own blood! ‘He cursed those that inflicted the wounds saying: Let not the year pass over them alive; and it came to pass that not one of those that shot at the Prophet survived beyond the year.

 

News of the defeat reaches Medina

Seventy-four corpses were strewn upon the plain. Indeed, it was evident that the destruction of the whole force was only averted by the foresight of Muhammad in keeping a secure place of refuge at the rear. On the enemy’s side the loss was but twenty. The news of the discomfiture soon reached Medina, with rumours of the death of Muhammad; and the road was covered with men and women hastening towards the scene of action, to nurse the wounded, or search for the dead. Fatima helped to dress the gash on her father’s temple, the bleeding from which could only be stopped by applying the cinder of a piece of burned matting. This added to the ghastly appearance of the wound which was deep, and did not fully heal for over a month.

 

The Qurraish hesitation

When the Qurraish reached the valley of Ackick, they paused there for a while. Their counsels were divided. Some urged to follow up the defeat by a blow on the defenceless city. Others pointed to the danger of entanglement and loss in the outskirts and narrow streets and contended that they should rest content with their victory. The opinions of the latter prevailed and leading their horses they slowly wended their way back to Mecca.

 

The halo of glory around the martyrs of Uhud

The field of Uhud was ever after invested for the Muslim with a peculiar interest. Muhammad used to visit it once a year, and bless the martyrs buried there.

 

Muhammad’s prestige affected at the time by the defeat

Murmurs at the inglorious retreat were rife throughout the city. Tradition passes lightly over this uncongenial subject but the Quran tells a different story. We there find that even the adherents of Muhammad were staggered by the reversal. It was natural that they should. The success at Badr had been assumed as a proof of divine support; and, by parity reasoning, the defeat at Uhud was subversive of the prophetic claim. It required all the ability of Muhammad to avert this dangerous imputation, sustain the credit of his cause, and reanimate his followers. This he did mainly by means of that portion of the Quran which appears in the latter half of the third sura Al-Imran.

 

Muhammad’s line of argument

Much stress is adroitly laid on the marvellous interposition which brought victory at Badr. The reverse at Uhud was necessary to sift the true believers from those who were infidels at heart. The light afflictions there sustained were a meet prelude to the eternal glories of Paradise. The faithful had coveted the happy state of the martyrs at Badr, and had longed for the blessed same fortune; now, when death presented itself, they fled before its terrors!’ The slaughter, anyway, could not have been averted by following the counsels of those who stayed at home; for the hour of death is fixed for every one, and is inevitable. Future success was largely promised, if the believers would but remain steadfast and be courageous. The Lord had already at Uhud placed victory within their reach when by cowardice and disobedience they drew defeat upon themselves. Even if Muhammad had been killed in battle, what then? He was but the Messenger of God like other Apostles who had died before him but the cause itself was immortal and divine. Such is the line of argument, mingled with comfort, reproof, and exhortation.

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